Top Missing Art from WWII

When Monuments Men (2014) came out it was a pretty big deal for Art History nerds like myself (movie trailer link below). Although skewed to make itself a big screen hit, it is roughly based on a true story. So after watching this movie I decided to dig up a little dirt and see what art is still missing from World War II. Alas, here is my list:

1. Portrait of a Young Man, Raphael. Stolen during the war from Czartoryski's family collection in Krakow, Poland, being one of the most valuable plunders. A friend of Hitler's was said to have brought it to the Royal Wawel Castle in Poland for his own personal use back in 1945. Since then it has never been seen. Rumor has it that it may be locked up in a Swiss Vault.

Portrait of a Young Man. Raphael. 1513-1514. 

2. Portrait of a Lady by Caravaggio. This piece was kept in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum in Berlin, and it thought to be missing or destroyed during the war.

Portrait of a Lady by Caravaggio

3. The Amber Room. Made during the 18th century in Prussia, the Amber Room was known once as the eighth wonder of the world. It was entirely looted during World War II. It has since been recreated in 2003. 

Close up detail of Reconstructed Amber Room.

4. Five Dancing Women, Degas. Stolen by the Nazis from Jewish Art Collector Baron Mor Lipot Herzog, this beautiful pastel piece has unfortunately never been returned.

Five Dancing Women. Degas.

5.  Madonna with Child by Giovanni Bellini. Placed in a museum in Berlin, this piece was brought to a flak tower where is was said to have been burned or looted under Russian control.                           

Madonna with Child. Giovanni Bellini.

And last but not least, the trailer for Monuments Men:

Mona Lisa Descending a Staircase

Short Award Winning Film, Produced and Directed by Joan C. Gratz.

Macedonian Mythology: Rape of Persephone

By: Kayla Kandzorra

The ancient city of Aigai, now known as modern Vergina, is located in Imathia, 75 km from Thessaloniki. According to oral tales, the city was founded by Perdiccas I when the Macedonians of the Argive migrates north over the plain of Emathia. However, the site was first inhabited during the Early Iron Age (c. 1000-700 BCE). Aigai was the first ancient capital and cemetery of Macedonian kings, dating back to the 4th century BCE. As the capital of the Macedonian kingdom and site of the royal court, Aigai was the most important urban centre in the region throughout the archaic period and the following century. A large palace and mounds of cemeteries were located at Aigai. Greek architecture influenced the style of buildings at Macedonia, that included both Doric and Ionic forms. This influence illustrates how cultures interacted and diffused within each other. At Macedon there was constant changes of the the city states during this time, due to war and governments expanding. The capital was moved to Pella during the ruling of King Archelaus, but Aigai remained the custom burial ground for the Macedonian kings.

The tumulus at Vergina, consisted of three tombs and a heroon. The walls were plastered and painted with a long limestone slabbed roof. Even after being looted, the tombs remain important because they are preserved in exceptional conditions. Macedonian tombs are arguably a combination of Greek architecture and the influence of Doric structures. The exterior of the tombs resemble barrel-vaulted earthen mounds as opposed to traditional flat surfaces. The barrel-vaulted mounds with embellished facades may have been an observation made during the conquests to Asia by Alexander the Great. In the case of these tombs at Vergina, it was not possible to date the tombs because of the uniqueness of the structure. The interiors were decorated with paintings and reliefs, in addition to pillars and chambers. The remains of the artifacts are still highly debatable in terms of dating methods. It is important to understand that the study of royal tombs at Vergina is only a reflection of the royalty and upper class, and does not mirror the working class. Nonetheless, the abundance of wealth and density of the grave mounds affirms to the importance of Aigai during the 4th century BCE.

Rape of Persephone. Nikomachos. 340 BCE.

The first tomb at Vergina was found to be robbed in antiquity. Outside of the tomb was a simple heroon, built for worship of the dead. The tomb itself was built from limestone in a cist grave style with no entrance, but a hole in the roof that was made later by looters. The roof was originally wooden, but only a limestone slab remains. The internal measurements of the tomb were 3.5 m by 2.09 m and a slab roof ceiling reaching 3 meters. The grave goods that were taken are unknown, but the human remains and some pottery sherds were left dispersed among the ground. Forensics have determined the remains to belong to a mature male, a much younger female, and a neonate. The walls were covered with frescos of the Rape of Persephone on the north wall; Demeter on the east wall; and three figures on the south wall. Beneath the plastered frescos is a blue framing of griffins. Frescos are paintings done in watercolour on wet plaster on walls or ceilings which had to be done quickly so that as the plaster dries, the paint remains stable on the surface. The most significant of these paintings is the the Rape of Persephone (shown above), commonly attributed to the famous Greek painter Nikomachos. It can be dated to 366 BCE, supported by the surrounding pottery. The painting depicts Hades, the god of the underworld, abducting Persephone, the goddess of grain, daughter to Demeter. Hades is seen controlling his chariot with one arm grasping the breast of Persephone. Persephone tries to escape, while her friend and herself shown in the frieze both have such lively emotions of terror and pain. Nikomachos shows extensive talent his time such as anatomically correct bodies, with an emphasis on facial emotions and body movement - which would reappear in later sculptures and art. Nikomachos only used four colours to paint; red, brown, yellow and purple, but achieved the correct shading to give amazing details. The colours must be prepared well in advance because the layers of paint on wet plaster would have to be done the day of. Specifically, Nikomachos showed curves and foreshortening of the wheel and draperies, such a task that was not easy to achieve. He used short, dark brushstrokes to suggest shading on Hades’ arm and Persephone’s torso, and throughout the fresco. The technique used had carved outlines and a unique muted palette, that deviate from the fresco-secco technique of later Macedonian wall paintings. This approach is uncommon because the outlines show the preliminary sketch outlining the scene. The fresco is important to art history because it was the first mythological scene known to have decorated Macedonian cist tombs.

Exploded Skull Art

By: Kayla Kandzorra

Some people might still be creeped out, but as an archaeologist I have an undying love of bones. (Get it?)

So naturally, I did some research on the 19th century French anatomist Claude Beauchene who developed an "exploded" cranium, by disarticulating and studying the human skull, as first introduced by Leonardo da Vinci. What I found was creepily beautiful.

Exploded Skull, Claude Beauchene.

There is not a lot of information about Beauchene, however bone-collector-turned-osteologist Ryan Matthew Cohn has since reintroduced this anatomical art form. 

Exploded Skull. Ryan Matthew Cohn.

With cats too...

Exploded Domestic Cat Cranium. Ryan Matthew Cohn.

There has always been a debate about the fine line between science and art, but I like to believe in a happy medium. So what do you think? Creepy or Cool?

Check out these links for more of Ryan Matthew Cohn's work:

http://ryanmatthewcohn.tumblr.com/

http://www.ryanmatthewoddities.com/

Lupa Romana: Fake??

Most of you are already familiar with the bronze "Lupa Romana" sculpture. For those of you who don't here's a quick history: known as the oldest piece of Roman art, it depicts the legend of the twins Romulus and Remus rescued by a she-wolf who raised them. Long story short, Romulus kills Remus and the city is named "Rome."

Anyhow, the Romans apparently looked to this story and believed this legend to be true to the founding of their history. Unfortunately, it is true that no archaeological evidence can support this. But is there evidence that this legend existed?

It was up until the 60's that historians believed the wolf to be of Etruscan origin... because the Romans always stole art right? Wrong. The wolf was carbon dated by the wax, from the lost wax method used and turned out to be from the 13th century. And the babies you ask? They were added on during the 15th century aka the Renaissance. So the story of Romulus and Remus was wrong.

An explanation for this is simple. Modern interpreters always suggest that art (specifically Roman), was based on propaganda (Propaganda: that which we all want and demand it is given to us). But this is misunderstood. Roman art is just like all art- to raise awareness. We still do art in the same manner.

So alas, Roman art may not be fake, it just never disappeared.

Lupa Romana

Feminist Artist - Judy Chicago

For the past 50 years, Judy Chicago, an 'artist, author and intellectual' has been educating the public through incredible feminist strides. Her installation pieces incorporate the role of women through history and culture, with a little bit of modern shock appeal.

The most popular was the 1979 "Dinner Party" which had 39 places set for mythical and historical famous women. The table is placed in a triangular position with table settings which are more or less... vaginas.

Dinner Party. 1979. Judy Chicago.

Here are some more of her pieces:

Menstruation Bathroom

Red Flag

And our favorite:

Birth Tear

Check more of her work out at http://www.judychicago.com/

Sacrifice of Isaac Critique: Brunelleschi and Ghiberti.

Critique on the Sacrifice of Isaac (1401-1403) by Lorenzo Ghiberti, in comparison to the similar relief panel by Filippo Brunelleschi. The panels were made as submissions for a competition held at Florence. As most art in the fifteenth century, the winner was to be commissioned - in this case - with the task of completing a prominent Baptistery. The techniques that Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi used, led the introduction of the Renaissance. The panels were heavily influenced by classical and Christian views, and pushed away from dominant themes in previous Gothic art. Historical events on the city of Florence will be mentioned for significance to the interpretation of Renaissance art. By means of detailed interpretations and historical opinions, this paper will elaborate on my opinions on why Lorenzo Ghiberti was right to have been chosen to win the competition.

Sacrifice of Isaac. Ghiberti on Left. Brunelleschi on Right.

The Renaissance, French for “rebirth,” was a period of reintroduction of classical culture. Many historians have identified the city of Florence, Italy, as the birthplace of the Renaissance movement. Florence has always been a well established and patriotic center for wealth and culture. To keep their independent existence, Florence undertook numerous threats throughout history. There were constant struggles during the end of the fourteenth century through the first quarter of the fifteenth century that risked Florence’s Republican government. The Black Death was the greatest concern. It was estimated that the plague took as many as 75 million European lives. Florence itself went from 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 to 50,000 in 1351. It left Europe in political and economic chaos that was hard to recover from. However, that was not all that Florence had to battle. The Ciompi Revolt of 1378, Milanese military attacks led by Giangaleazzo Visconti throughout the 1390s until his death in September 1402, subsequent threats by King Ladislas of Naples from 1409 to his death in 1414, and Filippo Maria Visconti’s renewed plans for Milanese territorial expansion lasting from 1420 until 1425- were all obstructed by Florentine diplomacy and politics. Luckily, once the Duke of Milan died, Florence was spared and the citizens rejoiced with civic price. It is not surprising that Florentine artists and patrons desired new visual inspiration to convey their hard-earned republican thoughts throughout their city.

During the first decades of the Quattrocento, sculpture and architecture were flourishing with achievement.  Fresh ideas came from the rediscovery of classical documents, art and theory. These traits were evidently taking new form into the Renaissance not only through art, but civic and moral duty. Artists took on the role of  this new found esteem to promote themselves in a new light. Mathematical proportions from early  Greek and Roman architecture evolved the nature of Renaissance aesthetics. Florence, and Italians alike, have now expanded their interest in their philosophical and educational systems, encouraged to explore their potential.  This desire to achieve the best knowledge of culture and of one’s self,  tended to an expanding artistic culture in the 14th century.

Amongst the most ambitious projects was the baptistery of San Giovanni (Saint John) at Florence. It is one of the oldest building in the city, originally constructed during 1509 and 1128. The outside form is octagonal with 3 sets of massive guilded doors. The exterior and the first bronze doors were that of sculptor and architect Andrea Pisano (c. 1270/90- c. 1348/9), assistant to Giotto di Bondone. Pisano completed the east entrance during 1330 and 1336, depicting scenes from the life of John the Baptist (fig. 1.). However, two more sets to illustrate the Old and New testaments, were needed for the other sides of the building. The Guild of Wool Merchants were delighted to mandate the next set of doors. In 1401, the Opera of the Baptistery announced a competition for the second set of doors under the supervision of Arte di Calimala, the oldest of the Florentine guilds. The Arte di Calimala, was a part of twelve great guilds, then eventually became the most powerful of them all. With power and prestige came financial success, which benefitted the reconstruction of the city. The task of the Baptistery was the city’s most prestigious commission.

The rules were simple, each artist interested had to submit a relief panel depicting the sacrifice of Isaac. According to Biblical story, the Sacrifice of Isaac (Genesis 22: 1 - 19) was a test of Abraham’s faith in God. In the bible, God tells Abraham, "Take your son, your only son, Isaac, whom you love, and go to the region of Moriah. Sacrifice him there as a burnt offering on one of the mountains I will tell you about." In response, Abraham went up the mountain with Isaac, two servants and a donkey. Abraham ropes Isaac onto the altar sadly, after Isaac questions where the offering was. Doing what was instructed, Abraham raised the knife up to Isaac in offering to the Lord, but an angel came to stop him. The angel explained to Abraham that he had passed the test of the Lord because he would give up his only son. God then provided Abraham with a ram that he would use to sacrifice instead. This story, among other Christian references, were the predominant subjects of the Renaissance. It was without question that the baptistery needed art displaying the stories of the Lord.

Seven Tuscan artists gathered to compete at the guild: Filippo Brunelleschi, Lorenzo Ghiberti, Jacopo della Quercia, Simone da Colle, Niccolò d'Arezzo, Niccolò di Pietro Lamberti, and Francesco di Valdambrino. The competition narrowed to the works of Filippo Brunelleschi and Lorenzo Ghiberti. Lorenzo Ghiberti was born around year 1381, in Florence. He acquired a background of the goldsmith's trade from his father, Bartoluccio Ghiberti, which assisted his knowledge in sculpting bronze. Ghiberti was accepted in the goldsmiths' guild and became a master goldsmith in 1398. To escape the plague, Ghiberti moved to Rimini for a short period of time where he received further education as a painter. Brunelleschi was also born in Florence in year 1377. He had a background in literary and mathematical education, but being artistically talented he enrolled in Arte della Seta, a silk merchants' Guild. It was here that he was introduced to goldsmiths, metalworkers, and bronze workers. Brunelleschi became a master goldsmith in 1398. Both talented young men with goldsmith’s backgrounds, managed to create works of a significant impact on the arts at Florence.

Figure 1: Andrea Pisano The Baptism of Christ

The artists both interpreted the same moment of the angel coming to stop Abraham from killing his son. In both panels there is an angel who intervenes at the exact scene where Isaac is on the altar with his father’s knife to his throat. There are similarly two servants, a donkey and a ram are represented, as was told in the biblical story. Brunelleschi and Ghiberti were akin influenced by repeated curves of drapery which are independent of the body beneath. There was a similarity to Pisano’s treatment of figures and background.

In 1402, the winner chosen was Ghiberti who was a trained painter and goldsmith only in his early twenties. Famous art historian Vasari wrote, the winner would have had to include “scenery, nudes, draped figures and animals and the use of full, half and shallow relief.” It is no surprise that the panels of Brunelleschi and Ghiberti - still standing side by side - are of more interest to historians, than the resulting bronze doors. Antonio Manetti, Brunelleschi’s biographer, wrote that the competition was a tie, but Brunelleschi would refuse to work with his competitor. However, Ghiberti explained in his Commentaries that “to [him] was conceded the palm of the victory and by all the experts and by all those who had competed with me. To me the honor was conceded universally and with no exception.”

Brunelleschi and Ghiberti recognized that the winner of the best panel would be granted lifelong fame and recognition. Ghiberti worked on his piece in a studio that was open to viewers, so he received public criticism and incorporate the feedback into his work. Brunelleschi worked in secrecy so the public would be surprised when his art was revealed. Unlike Brunelleschi, Ghiberti’s version of the scene was more delicate in nature. Brunelleschi depicted Abraham directly gripping his son, illuminated with sharp diagonal angles and dramatic emotion which add a scary tension to the panel. The angel is already coming to the rescue at the exact moment that the knife is on Isaac’s throat. Isaac has his mouth open as if he were crying out in fear. The donkey, servants and ram are all looking away in sadness. The altar that Isaac is standing on has a detailed relief, although scholars have criticized that is has the features of a pedestal - while Isaac appears to take the form of a statue. It is almost as if Brunelleschi wanted to jump straight ahead to the action of the scene without thinking how to properly lay out the story on the panel. On the other hand, Ghiberti has Abraham and his son are featured in a contrapposto position with a softer contact, but more emotions. Ghiberti’s appears more true to the story because Abraham looks saddened at the thought of having to kill his only son. There seems to be a slight pause of grief right as the knife is pointed to Isaac. Ghiberti illuminates this by using the raise in the relief to carefully add lighting to the figures which display their features more prominently. Ghiberti may have appealed to the competition because the church may have wanted the audience to be fearful of God, which has been efficiently portrayed. Though there are softer angles, the facial expressions are carefully sculpted, and cannot be mistaken. With the strong emotions, it is shocking that Ghiberti reintroduced tasteful nudity and appreciation for muscular and physical structure from antiquity. All figures, whether young or old, were meant to appear strong and beautiful. There is a strong influence from the bodies of classical sculptures. Even more so, Brunelleschi’s Isaac looks weaker and more hidden, with a loin cloth covering himself, as opposed to the attractive body of Ghiberti’s Isaac. As a result, the bodies may have inspired further artists such as Michelangelo to educate themselves in the study of anatomy.  Nonetheless, this allowed for realism, which was a prominent theme to achieve in the Renaissance.

Ghiberti, amongst other Florentine painters, developed advancements for stylization. The rocks and drapery flow in a very stylized form that Ghiberti managed to perfect. The mountainous rocks give more dimension to the panel, providing an allusion that the servants and donkey are in a foreground, away from the sacrifice. Brunelleschi’s panel appears to be more flat. The drapery that Ghiberti composed shows skill of recognizing human form, which he continued to use throughout his career. The drapery looks more real flowing freely against the body. There is even drapery under Ghiberti’s altar that frames nicely to the composition. This was achieved by adding depth and shadows that emphasize form.

As for other themes, nature was very significant during the Renaissance. Ghiberti allowed for nature to come in with the mountain and foreground in the scene. The servants and donkey do not distract from the focus, as they are contrasted by the dividing mountain ledge. The ledge bring a background of nature and almost frames the scene of Abraham’s sacrifice.The altar that Ghiberti portrayed showed detail resembling the early classical Roman style that was typically shows on early temple friezes. As mentioned earlier, the classical period was a heavy influence of the Renaissance. Brunelleschi on the other hand, does not seem to have much natural scenes except for a few shrubs.

There is a unified measure of space and perspective that was achieved by a knowledge of spatial illusion. Ghiberti understood how to adapt all characters into a harmonious setting. In Brunelleschi’s panel, the eye is moved across the composition in no specific direction. He divided the panel into the lower section and upper section with no emphasis on one or the other. The figures in the front compete for the eye’s attention, when the focus should be on Abraham and Isaac. Characters seem to be placed wherever there was room allotted, with no framing or lines. For example, the ram that Brunelleschi added is merely placed on a rock, paying no attention to the sacrifice. The servants seem to be occupied by taking the donkey for a drink, inattentive of the drama unfolding behind them. This shows a lack of planning the composition. Moreover, the figures are in awkward stances to convey the message in the scene. The angel shown is simply coming out of the side from a cloud to reach out to Abraham. The angel resembles more of a design element that an important character in the story. In contrast, the angel of Ghiberti is made with a great knowledge of foreshortening. Ghiberti added the ram to blend with the top of the ledge in a smooth curve of the mountain. Ghiberti’s donkey and the two servants are not a distraction unlike Brunelleschi’s, whose donkey appears to be one of the main focuses of the panel. Ghiberti has flow with diagonal movement leading your eye to the main focal point of the altar. It is strategically placed slightly off center which is the golden section of a surface. The long vertical mountain gives an illusion of height to the piece. It also adds a climax to the story. In turn, the shadowy servants add balance to the movement happening on the altar, and relieves the piece from having any negative space- otherwise known as horror vacui. All these principles of composition add to the strength of a more visually appeasing design.

With the design elements complete, the panels were still difficult to be shaped within the perimeters of a quatrefoil outline. The panel had to resemble the earlier work of Andrea Pisano. Brunelleschi’s panel was composed of a bronze sheet to which the individually cast figures are attached, while Ghiberti’s background and figures are cast in a single, continuous piece, with the exception of the figure of Isaac which was attached. This in turn made Ghiberti’s relief stronger, and because his figures are hollow, they are less heavy than that of the competition. Ghiberti’s figures are more protruding, giving a more three dimensional depth. Brunelleschi’s figures would have to be attached with metal pegs, using more bronze, which was avoidable expenses. The idea that Ghiberti was able to shape his bronze in a single, complete fashion could have been a key deciding factor for the judges.

Comparing Ghiberti’s panel to the relief by Pisano, there is a great evolution of technique. Pisano’s panel still resembled traditional Gothic art. Ghiberti took his themes of nature, seen in the mountain, and the similarity of the body and drapery in contrapposto stature. He focused more on Abraham and Isaac rather than the angel, or other sacred imagery which would have been more prominent in Gothic art. Ghiberti also adapted the style of the panel quatrefoil panel and added more realism with the illusion of depth. He was more focused on the characters being conveyed in a natural stance, that he even added wrinkles in his sculpting. Pisano’s panel looked like the scene was just attached onto the blank slate compared to Ghiberti’s. Ghiberti certainly impressed the viewers by outdoing his predecessor.

No matter the winner, both artists accomplished great successes in their futures. The panels were so successful that it was decided that they were to be adorned on the on the north side of the baptistery (fig. 3). Future artists such as Michelangelo have referred to Ghiberti’s doors as the “Gates of Paradise.” The 28 panels took Ghiberti 21 years to complete, then after, he went on to adorned the east gate with another set of panels. Ghiberti died on December 1st, 1455. Brunelleschi, perhaps discouraged from sculpture, went forth to pursue his career in architecture. His most significant piece was the engineering of the Great Dome at the Florence cathedral, Santa Maria del Fiore. Brunelleschi also became the inventor of linear perspective, which greatly worked out to his benefit. He died on April 15, 1446.

(Figure 2). Lorenzo Ghiberti, bronze doors of the Baptistery of San Giovanni,

North Portal, Florence, 1403-1427.